Japanese grammar
86 compact cards using familiar vocabulary from your study list. Each has a pattern, three example rows and one useful caution. AI generated from learning materials.
Covers the 29 topics visible in your Busuu grammar screenshot, the 32 Anki grammar items, and supporting grammar from reviewed lessons. Overlaps are merged. This is a revision reference, not a claim that you can recall every form.
“Casual” uses everyday plain forms; “polite” usually means です／ます. Respectful and humble language depends on whose action you describe. Anime-style endings are labelled separately. A slash shows alternatives; an arrow shows a change of form.
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Foundations 9
Statements and questionsPut the main verb or description at the end. Japanese often leaves out an obvious subject.
Noun / -adjective + → . Verb: plain form → form. Polite question: add . Casual questions often use rising intonation.
。
Today is a day off.
。
Today is a day off.
、？ → 、。
Are you working tomorrow?
Vocabulary from your list
- — today
- — break
- — tomorrow
- — job; work, job
- — cold; colder
Verb groups and ますKnow the verb group before building other forms. The plain non-past can describe habits or future plans.
-verbs: remove + (→). -verbs: final u-sound → i-sound + (→). Irregular: →; （）→（）.
、。
I read books every day.
、。
I read books every day.
、／。
I will watch a film tomorrow.
Vocabulary from your list
- — every day
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
- — tomorrow
- — movie
- — to see; to watch
- — to eat
- — to drink
- — to return
- — enter; am going to join
Negative verbs and the ない formSay that something does not happen or that you will not do it.
-verbs: remove + . -verbs: final u-sound → a-sound + ; final → . →; →（）; →. Polite: →.
。
I am not going today.
。
I am not going today.
。。。
I will not buy it. I will not eat. I will not do it.
Vocabulary from your list
- — today
- — to go
- — to buy
- — to eat
- — to do; to play (a sport)
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (inanimate objects)
- — to read
Past verbs and the た formDescribe completed actions. The plain past is also the base for たら, たり and たことがある.
Polite: →; →. Plain positive: use the -form sound changes, but ／→／. Plain negative: →.
、。
I watched a film yesterday.
、。
I watched a film yesterday.
／。
I did not read the book.
Vocabulary from your list
- — yesterday
- — movie
- — to see; to watch
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
- — to go
い-adjectives and な-adjectivesDescribe a noun, or make the description the main statement.
Before a noun: -adjective + noun; -adjective + + noun. End of sentence: ／; ／.
／。
It is a big room.
／。
It is a quiet room.
／。
This room is quiet.
Vocabulary from your list
- — large; great
- — room
- — quiet
- — pretty; clean
- — dislikeable
Negative descriptions and じゃないNegate an adjective or a noun. じゃ is the everyday contraction of では.
-adjective: remove final + . Noun / -adjective: + . Polite options: ／; ／.
。
This book is not expensive.
。
This book is not expensive.
。。
I am not a student. The room is not quiet.
Vocabulary from your list
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — higher; expensive
- — student
- — room
- — quiet
- — like; well
- — cold; colder
Past descriptionsDescribe how something was, or was not.
-adjective: →; →. Noun / -adjective: →; →. Polite: ; .
。
The film was enjoyable.
。
The film was enjoyable.
。。
It was not expensive. The room was quiet.
Vocabulary from your list
- — movie
- — pleasant; enjoyable
- — higher; expensive
- — room
- — quiet
- — like; well
Making nouns with さ and みTurn a quality into something you can talk about as a noun.
-adjective: remove final + (→). -adjective: add (→). Some established words use , such as .
。
I like the size of this room.
。
I like the size of this room.
。
The sadness does not go away.
Vocabulary from your list
- — room
- — size, scale
- — like; to like
- — sadness; sorrow
- — (electric appliance / appliance for light) go out
Describing how an action happensUse an adjective to modify a verb rather than a noun.
-adjective: →. -adjective: + . →; →; →.
。
I will go to bed early today.
。
I will go to bed early today.
。
Please speak quietly.
Vocabulary from your list
- — today
- — quick; soon
- — to sleep
- — quiet
- — to speak; to talk
- — room
Particles and noun phrases 11
は and がは sets up a topic or contrast. が identifies the subject, often the answer to “who?” or “what?”.
Topic + comment. Subject + predicate. These choices depend on what the conversation already assumes.
、／。
As for me, I read books every day.
。— 。
Who is coming? — The teacher is coming.
、。
I drink tea, but I do not drink coffee.
Vocabulary from your list
- — I; I (used with humble language)
- — every day
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
- — who
- — come; to come
- — Mr.; Miss
- — tea
- — to drink
- — coffee
- — like; to like
- — to understand
の between nouns and in place of a nounConnect nouns, or omit a noun that is already clear.
Noun + + noun: possession, association or type. With an understood noun: ; . A -adjective needs before nominalising .
／。
This is my book.
／。
I read a Japanese-language book.
。
The red one, please.
Vocabulary from your list
- — I; I (used with humble language)
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — Japanese
- — to read
- — red; (a) red
- — quiet
- — room
- — friend
- — promise; appointment
を for the object of an actionMark what an action directly acts on. を is pronounced “o”.
Object + + verb. In some movement expressions, marks the place passed through or left.
。
I read a book.
。
I read a book.
。
I leave the house.
Vocabulary from your list
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
- — home; house
- — to go out; to appear; to emerge
- — Japanese
- — to understand
も for also and neitherAdd something to what has already been said.
replaces , or in their usual roles. Keep location/direction particles when needed: , , .
。
I am going too.
。
I am going too.
。
I study at the library too.
Vocabulary from your list
- — I; I (used with humble language)
- — to go
- — library
- — study
に for a specific timeAnchor an event to a time point.
Time + + action: , . Relative expressions such as , and normally stand without .
。
I get up at seven.
。
I get up at seven.
、。
I will meet a friend tomorrow.
Vocabulary from your list
- — seven o'clock
- — to get up
- — tomorrow
- — friend
- — to meet
に and へ for destinationsに marks a target or destination. へ, pronounced “e”, highlights the direction.
Place + ／ + movement verb. also marks targets such as the person you meet or give something to.
。
I am going to the station.
。
I am going towards/to the station.
。
I will meet the teacher.
Vocabulary from your list
- — station
- — to go
- — Mr.; Miss
- — to meet
- — seven o'clock
- — room
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (animate objects)
で for where an action happensMark the place where someone does something.
Place + + action. Compare for where something exists.
。
I study at the library.
。
I study at the library.
。
The book is in the library.
Vocabulary from your list
- — library
- — study
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (inanimate objects)
- — to read
で for tools and transportSay what means you use to do something.
Tool, vehicle or language + + action.
。
I go by bus.
。
I go by bus.
。
I write a letter in Japanese.
Vocabulary from your list
- — bus
- — to go
- — Japanese
- — letter
- — to write
- — to walk
と for and or with and か for orList specified items, name a companion, or offer alternatives.
A B = A and B. Person + action = with that person. A B = A or B.
／。
I will buy bread and apples.
。
I watch a film with a friend.
？
Will you have tea or coffee?
Vocabulary from your list
- — bread
- — apple
- — to buy
- — friend
- — movie
- — to see; to watch
- — tea
- — coffee
- — to drink
や and とか for examplesGive examples without claiming the list is complete.
Noun A noun B. Casual: A B . can also list example actions; cannot directly do that.
。
I buy things such as bread and apples.
。
I will buy bread, apples, that sort of thing.
、。
Things like watching a film or reading a book.
Vocabulary from your list
- — bread
- — apple
- — to buy
- — movie
- — to see; to watch
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
から and まで and the deadline までにSet a starting point, an endpoint or a deadline.
A B = from A to B. Time = until that time. Time = by that time.
／。
I walk from home to the station.
。
I will wait until seven.
。
Please come by seven.
Vocabulary from your list
- — home; house
- — station
- — to walk
- — seven o'clock
- — to wait
- — come; to come
Verb forms and ongoing situations 14
ある and いるSay something exists, is present, or is in a place.
Place + thing ; place + person/animal . Polite: ／. Negatives: ／.
／。
There is a desk in the room.
／。
There is a cat in the garden.
／。
I do not have time today.
Vocabulary from your list
- — room
- — desk
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (inanimate objects)
- — garden
- — cat
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (animate objects)
- — today
- — hour; time
Building the て formUse this form as the base for many links, requests and aspect expressions.
-verbs: →. ・・→; ・・→; →; →; →. Exceptions: →; →; →（）.
→ 。 → 。
The dictionary and て forms of “eat” and “see”.
→ 。 → 。 → 。
Buy, read and write in the て form.
。
I am reading a book.
Vocabulary from your list
- — to eat
- — to see; to watch
- — to buy
- — to read
- — to write
- — to go
- — to do; to play (a sport)
- — come; to come
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to return
Linking actions and descriptionsConnect events in a sequence, or combine descriptions. The last predicate carries the main tense and politeness.
Verb + next clause. -adjective: →. Noun / -adjective: + .
、。
I went home and ate.
、。
I went home and ate.
。
This room is big and quiet.
Vocabulary from your list
- — home; house
- — to return
- — meal
- — to eat
- — room
- — large; great
- — quiet
ている for an action in progressDescribe what someone is doing, or an ongoing repeated activity.
Verb + → . In casual speech the often disappears: →.
、。
I am reading a book now.
、。
I am reading a book now.
、。
I study Japanese every day.
Vocabulary from your list
- — now
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
- — every day
- — Japanese
- — study
ている for a resulting stateWith a change-of-state verb, focus on the state that continues after the change.
Verb + : = is open; = is married; = knows.
。
The window is open.
。
The window is open.
。／。
I know. / I do not know.
Vocabulary from your list
- — window
- — to open; to hold (an event); to open
- — to know
- — marry; get married
An action on something or a change itselfDistinguish causing a change from the change occurring.
Transitive: person object . Intransitive: thing . Learn pairs together: ／, ／.
／。
I opened the window.
／。
The window opened.
。
The window is open.
Vocabulary from your list
- — window
- — to open
- — to open; to hold (an event); to open
- — to close
- — to close
- — to put (something) in
- — enter; am going to join
てある for a prepared resultHighlight a state resulting from someone doing something deliberately.
Transitive verb + ／. In the basic result-state pattern, the affected thing is marked .
。
A book has been placed on the desk.
。
A book has been placed on the desk.
。／。
The window is open. / The window has been opened and left that way.
Vocabulary from your list
- — desk
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to put; to place
- — window
- — to open; to hold (an event); to open
- — to open
ておく for preparation or leaving things as they areDo something ahead of time, or deliberately maintain a state.
Verb + ／. Casual contraction: →; →.
。
I will prepare tomorrow’s food in advance.
。
I will prepare tomorrow’s food in advance.
。
Leave the window open, please.
Vocabulary from your list
- — tomorrow
- — meal
- — to make
- — window
- — to open
てみる for trying somethingDo an action to see what it is like or what happens.
Verb + ／. This auxiliary is normally written in kana.
。
I will try this dish.
。
I will try this dish.
？
Why not try asking the teacher?
Vocabulary from your list
- — cuisine; a dish / cooking
- — to eat
- — Mr.; Miss
- — to hear; to listen; to ask
てしまう and ちゃう or じゃうExpress completion, or present an event as unfortunate or unintended.
Verb + . Casual contractions: →; →. Polite: .
。
I forgot my wallet, unfortunately.
。
I forgot my wallet, unfortunately.
。
I finished reading the whole book.
Vocabulary from your list
- — wallet
- — to forget
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — all
- — to read
ていく and てくるConnect an action to movement or change relative to now and here.
Verb + ／. can mean go, eat, then come back; can follow a change into the future.
／。
I will go and eat, then come back.
。
Please bring the book here.
／。
It has been getting cold.
Vocabulary from your list
- — meal
- — to eat
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to have / to hold
- — cold; colder
- — to become
Potential forms and ことができるSay what someone can do.
-verbs: →. -verbs: final u-sound → e-sound + . →; →（）. Also: dictionary verb + .
。
I can read Japanese.
。
I can read Japanese.
。
I can swim.
Vocabulary from your list
- — Japanese
- — to read
- — to swim
- — to eat
- — to do; to play (a sport)
- — come; to come
- — can; to be able to do
見える and 聞こえるDescribe something being visible or audible, rather than your ability or opportunity to look or listen.
Thing ／. Compare ／ for ability, opportunity or permission in context.
／。
The sea is visible; I can see the sea.
／。
I can hear music.
。
You can watch films here.
Vocabulary from your list
- — sea
- — to be visible; to see naturally
- — music
- — to be audible; to hear naturally
- — movie
- — to see; to watch
- — to hear; to listen; to ask
なる for change and する for choiceDescribe becoming something, or choosing/making something a certain way.
-adjective→／. -adjective or noun + ／.
／。
It got cold.
。
I want to become a teacher.
／。
I will have tea.
Vocabulary from your list
- — cold; colder
- — to become
- — Mr.; Miss
- — tea
- — to do; to play (a sport)
- — higher; expensive
Building longer sentences 14
Describing a noun with a clausePut the description directly before the noun, without a relative pronoun like “which” or “who”.
Plain-form clause + noun: . Use for the subject inside a neutral descriptive clause. The final main predicate can still be polite.
。
I will read the book I bought yesterday.
。
I will read the book I bought yesterday.
。
I will meet the teacher who teaches Japanese.
Vocabulary from your list
- — yesterday
- — to buy
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
- — Japanese
- — to teach
- — Mr.; Miss
- — to meet
- — quiet
- — room
の and こと for an activity or factTurn a clause into something that can be liked, discussed or described.
Plain clause + ／. Examples: ; . These overlap, but are not interchangeable in every fixed expression.
。
I like reading books.
。
I like reading books.
。
Studying every day is important.
Vocabulary from your list
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
- — like; to like
- — every day
- — study
- — precious
のだ and んだ for explanationsConnect what you say to the situation: an explanation, background, or a request for one.
Plain clause + ／. Nouns and -adjectives need : ; . Question: 。
。
The thing is, I have work today.
。
The thing is, I have work today.
。
Why aren’t you going?
Vocabulary from your list
- — today
- — job; work, job
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (inanimate objects)
- — to go
から and ので for reasonsConnect a reason to its result. ので often presents the reason more gently or matter-of-factly.
Clause + . Plain clause + ; noun / -adjective + . Compare and .
、。
It is cold, so I will close the window.
、。
It is cold, so I will close the window.
、。
It is quiet, so I will study here.
Vocabulary from your list
- — cold; colder
- — window
- — to close
- — quiet
- — study
けど and が for contrast or a gentle lead-inConnect contrasting points, or soften the start of a request.
Clause + ／. Noun / -adjective: ／. is conversational; and work well in polite exchanges.
、。
It is expensive, but I want to buy it.
、。
It is expensive, but I want to buy it.
、…。
Excuse me, I would like to get to the station…
Vocabulary from your list
- — higher; expensive
- — to buy
- — station
- — to go
のに for an unexpected contrastShow that the result is contrary to what you expected, often with disappointment or surprise.
Plain clause + . Noun / -adjective + .
、。
I studied, but I still do not understand.
、。
I studied, but I still do not understand.
、。
It is quiet, yet I cannot sleep.
Vocabulary from your list
- — study
- — to understand
- — quiet
- — to sleep
し for multiple reasons or qualitiesBuild up reasons or qualities, often implying there are more.
Plain clause + . Noun / -adjective + . Polite predicates can also precede : .
、、。
It is cheap and tasty, so I like this place.
、、。
It is cheap and tasty, so I like this place.
、。
I have work today, among other things, so I will not go.
Vocabulary from your list
- — inexpensive; cheap
- — good; delicious
- — shop; shop, store
- — like; to like
- — today
- — job; work, job
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (inanimate objects)
- — to go
たり for representative activitiesGive examples of what someone does, without fixing the order or listing everything.
Past plain form + : , . Typical structure: A B. The final carries tense and politeness.
、。
On days off, I do things like reading and watching films.
。
I do things like reading and watching films.
。
Yesterday I did things like cooking and cleaning.
Vocabulary from your list
- — break
- — day
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
- — movie
- — to see; to watch
- — yesterday
- — cuisine; a dish / cooking
- — to clean
- — to do; to play (a sport)
と and って for saying and thinkingQuote words or report a thought.
Plain clause + ／. Before , a noun or -adjective normally needs . Casual quotation often uses .
。
I think this book is good.
。
I think this book is good.
。
My friend says they will come tomorrow.
Vocabulary from your list
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — like; well
- — to think
- — friend
- — tomorrow
- — come; to come
- — student
- — to say
という and っていう for names and descriptionsIntroduce what something is called or explain what kind of thing it is.
Name / phrase + + noun. Casual: . Also: clause + = the fact or meaning that…
「」。
I know the word “arigatou”.
「」、？
Do you know the word “arigatou”?
。
Do you mean that they are not coming?
Vocabulary from your list
- — thank you
- — word
- — to know
- — come; to come
Questions inside a sentenceMake “where”, “who”, “whether” and similar questions part of what you know, ask or decide.
Question clause + + main predicate. Whether: plain clause + . Before embedded , do not add after a noun or -adjective.
。
I do not know where the station is.
。
I do not know where the station is.
、。
I have not decided whether to go tomorrow.
Vocabulary from your list
- — station
- — where
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (inanimate objects)
- — to understand
- — tomorrow
- — to go
- — yet; too
- — to decide
誰か and 誰も and 誰でもBuild expressions such as someone, no one and anyone.
Question word + = some…; question word + + negative = no…; question word + = any… . Examples: , , .
？／。
Is anyone there?
／。
There is no one there.
。
Anyone can do it.
Vocabulary from your list
- — who
- — what
- — where
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (animate objects)
- — can; to be able to do
- — always
だけ for onlyLimit the amount, people or actions under discussion.
Noun or plain clause + . Necessary particles can follow: , .
。
I will drink only water.
。
I will drink only water.
。
I have seen it just once.
Vocabulary from your list
- — water
- — to drink
- — once; one time
- — to see; to watch
とき for whenPut an event in the context of another time or situation.
Verb plain form + . -adjective + ; -adjective + ; noun + .
、。
I bought a book when I was going to Japan (before or on the way).
、。
I bought a book when I went to Japan (during that visit).
、。
I read books when I have free time.
Vocabulary from your list
- — Japan
- — to go
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to buy
- — free (time)
- — to read
Conditions and choices 14
と for a regular consequenceUse と for an automatic result, a regular pattern, or a discovery on doing something.
Plain non-past clause + + result. Noun / -adjective + .
、。
When I go to bed early, I feel better.
、。
If you open this window, it is cold.
、。
When I got home, there was a cat.
Vocabulary from your list
- — quick; soon
- — to sleep
- — health; healthy
- — to become
- — window
- — to open
- — cold; colder
- — home; house
- — to return
- — cat
- — station
- — to arrive
- — call
ば for a conditionState the condition under which a result follows.
Verbs: final u-sound→e-sound + (→; →). -adjective: →. Negative: →. Noun / -adjective: （）.
、。
If I have time, I can go.
、。
If I have time, I can go.
、。
If it is cheap, I will buy it.
Vocabulary from your list
- — hour; time
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (inanimate objects)
- — to go
- — inexpensive; cheap
- — to buy
- — to arrive
たら for if or onceA flexible everyday conditional, also useful for “when/after something happens”.
Plain past form + : , , , .
、。
If we have time, let’s watch a film.
、。
If we have time, let’s watch a film.
、。
Please call when you arrive at the station.
Vocabulary from your list
- — hour; time
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (inanimate objects)
- — movie
- — to see; to watch
- — station
- — to arrive
- — call
なら for if that is the caseRespond to an assumption, a topic, or something the other person has mentioned.
Plain clause + . Noun / -adjective + , without .
、。
If you are going to the station, the bus is a good choice.
、。
If you are going to the station, the bus is a good choice.
、。
If you mean Japanese, I understand a little.
Vocabulary from your list
- — station
- — to go
- — bus
- — like; well
- — Japanese
- — a bit; a little
- — to understand
てもいい for permissionAsk or say that an action is allowed.
Verb + （）. Question: . Negative permission is handled separately by .
？
Can I read a book here?
。
May I read a book here?
。
You may go home now.
Vocabulary from your list
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
- — yet; now
- — to return
てはいけない for must notSay an action is prohibited or unacceptable.
Verb + ／. Conversational alternatives: ; + →.
。
You must not eat here.
。
You must not eat here.
。
You must not swim here.
Vocabulary from your list
- — to eat
- — to swim
なければならない and everyday shortcutsSay an action is necessary. The full structure literally rejects not doing it.
Negative stem + ／. Casual: （）, （）. Polite: .
。
I have to get up early tomorrow.
。
I have to get up early tomorrow.
。
I have to go home now.
Vocabulary from your list
- — tomorrow
- — quick; soon
- — to get up
- — yet; now
- — to return
- — to go
なくてもいい for do not have toRemove an obligation, rather than forbid the action.
Verb →（）.
。
You do not have to come today.
。
You do not have to come today.
。／。
You do not have to come. / You must not come.
Vocabulary from your list
- — today
- — come; to come
たい and ほしい for wantingUse たい for an action you want to do; ほしい for something you want.
Verb stem + ; noun . conjugates like an -adjective: , .
。
I want to watch a film.
。
I want to watch a film.
。
I want a new book.
Vocabulary from your list
- — movie
- — to see; to watch
- — new; newer
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — want
てほしい for wanting someone to actExpress what you would like another person to do.
Person + verb + . Negative request of desire: .
。
I would like you to wait a little longer.
。
I would like you to wait a little longer.
。
I would like you not to forget.
Vocabulary from your list
- — a little more
- — to wait
- — to forget
Volitional forms and invitationsSuggest doing something together, or express your own resolve.
-verbs: →. -verbs: u-sound→o-sound + . →; →（）. Polite: stem + . Invitation: .
。
Let’s watch a film together.
。
Would you like to watch a film together?
。
Let’s meet at the station.
Vocabulary from your list
- — together
- — movie
- — to see; to watch
- — station
- — to meet
- — to do; to play (a sport)
- — come; to come
つもり and volitional と 思うState an intention or a plan.
Dictionary verb + ／; negative verb + = intend not to. Volitional + ／ = thinking of doing.
。
I intend to study at home tomorrow.
。
I intend to study at home tomorrow.
、。
I am thinking of meeting a friend next week.
Vocabulary from your list
- — tomorrow
- — home; house
- — study
- — next week
- — friend
- — to meet
- — to go
- — to think
Volitional とする for attemptingDescribe an attempt or being about to do something.
Volitional verb + . Past: . Negative: .
。
I tried to open the window.
。
I tried to open the window.
。／。
I opened it to see what would happen. / I attempted to open it.
Vocabulary from your list
- — window
- — to open
ことにする and ことになるDistinguish your decision from an arrangement or outcome.
Dictionary verb / negative verb + = decide to. + = it is decided/arranged that.
／。
I decided to read every day.
、。
It has been arranged that I meet the teacher next week.
。
I will decide not to go today.
Vocabulary from your list
- — every day
- — to read
- — next week
- — Mr.; Miss
- — to meet
- — today
- — to go
Requests and who does what 7
てください and ないでくださいAsk someone to do something, or ask them not to.
Verb + . Negative: verb + . Softer questions include and .
。
Wait a moment, please.
。／。
Please wait a moment. / Could you wait, please? (More deferential.)
。
Please do not open this window.
Vocabulary from your list
- — a little; a little (more casual)
- — to wait
- — window
- — to open
なさい and direct commandsRecognise instructions, orders and urgent language. Use them only when the relationship or situation supports them.
stem + . Direct imperative: -verbs u→e; -verbs →; →; →（）. Prohibition: dictionary verb + .
。
Go to bed early. (Parent/teacher-like instruction.)
！／！
Wait! / Do not go!
。
Please wait.
Vocabulary from your list
- — quick; soon
- — to sleep
- — to wait
- — to go
- — to eat
- — to do; to play (a sport)
- — come; to come
あげる and くれる for givingTrack the direction of a gift or favour relative to you and your group.
Giver recipient thing ／. : giving outward. : giving toward me or someone viewed as my side. For a favour, put a verb in its form before ／: , .
／。
I gave a book to a friend.
／。
A friend gave me a book.
。
A friend helped me; they did me that favour.
Vocabulary from your list
- — friend
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to deep-fry
- — to give to me or my group
- — to help (with a task)
もらう and てもらうDescribe receiving something, or benefiting from someone’s action.
Receiver giver ／ thing . For a favour: person verb + .
／。
I received a book from a friend.
。
The teacher taught me Japanese; I received their help.
。
Could you help me?
Vocabulary from your list
- — friend
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to receive
- — Mr.; Miss
- — Japanese
- — to teach
- — to help (with a task)
Passive formsMake the person or thing affected by an action the subject.
-verbs: →. -verbs: negative a-stem + (→; →). →; →（）.
。
The teacher called my name; I was called by the teacher.
。
The teacher called my name.
。
My friend read my book, and I was affected by it (often unwelcome).
Vocabulary from your list
- — Mr.; Miss
- — name
- — to call (for someone); to invite
- — friend
- — I; I (used with humble language)
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
- — to eat
- — to write
- — to buy
- — to do; to play (a sport)
- — come; to come
Causative forms for making or lettingSay that someone causes or allows another person to act.
-verbs: →. -verbs: negative a-stem + . →; →（）. The causer is usually ／; the actor is often or depending on the verb.
。
The teacher made/let me read a book.
。
The teacher made/let me read a book.
。
Sorry I kept you waiting.
Vocabulary from your list
- — Mr.; Miss
- — I; I (used with humble language)
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
- — to wait
- — to do; to play (a sport)
- — come; to come
させて for asking to be allowedUse the causative in a request to ask someone to let you act.
Causative -form + ／. A more deferential request can use .
。
Let me rest a little.
。
Please let me rest a little.
。
May I have a moment to speak?
Vocabulary from your list
- — a bit; a little
- — to rest / to be absent
- — to speak; to talk
Experience and uncertainty 5
たことがある for experienceSay you have done something at least once before.
Verb plain past + ／. Negative: ／.
。
I have been to Japan.
。
I have been to Japan.
。
I have never seen this film.
Vocabulary from your list
- — Japan
- — to go
- — movie
- — to see; to watch
- — yesterday
かもしれない for possibilityPresent something as possible without committing to it.
Plain clause + ／. Omit after nouns and -adjectives. Casual short form: .
。
It might rain tomorrow.
。
It might rain tomorrow.
。
My friend might come too.
Vocabulary from your list
- — tomorrow
- — rain
- — friend
- — come; to come
でしょう and だろうGive a prediction or inference, or seek agreement depending on intonation.
Plain clause + ／. Omit after a noun or -adjective. Rising can invite confirmation.
。
It will probably be cold tomorrow.
。
They are probably home by now.
、？
This book is interesting, isn’t it?
Vocabulary from your list
- — tomorrow
- — cold; colder
- — yet; now
- — home; house
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (animate objects)
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — interesting; funny
はず for an expectation based on reasonsSay what you expect to be true given what you know.
Plain clause + ／. Noun + ; -adjective + . rejects the possibility strongly.
。
The teacher should be at school (that is what I expect).
。
The teacher should be at school.
。
That cannot be right.
Vocabulary from your list
- — Mr.; Miss
- — school
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (animate objects)
みたい for seems like or resemblesMake a conversational judgement from what you observe, or compare something to something else.
Plain clause + （／）. Noun / -adjective directly + . Before a noun: .
。
The teacher seems busy.
。
The teacher seems busy.
。
It is a voice like a cat’s.
Vocabulary from your list
- — Mr.; Miss
- — busy; occupied
- — cat
- — voice
- — to see; to watch
Conversation and register 12
ね and よ and よねShow how your statement relates to the listener.
invites shared understanding or agreement. presents information or an assertion to the listener. combines an assertion with confirmation.
／。
It is cold today, isn’t it?
／。
This place has good food, you know.
、？
You are coming tomorrow, right?
Vocabulary from your list
- — today
- — cold; colder
- — shop; shop, store
- — good; delicious
- — tomorrow
- — come; to come
さ and なあ and わRecognise conversational colour rather than treating these as new factual meanings.
can give a casual, explanatory or emphatic feel. often voices reflection or feeling. Final varies with intonation, region and speaker style.
、。
This room is really quiet, huh.
。
It will be fine.
。
I am heading home now. (The tone depends on the speaker.)
Vocabulary from your list
- — room
- — quiet
- — okay; okay; alright
- — yet; now
- — to return
ぞ and ぜ and かいRecognise strongly casual or characterful endings.
and can make assertions or encouragement forceful; they often sound masculine or rough. is a familiar question ending, especially in yes/no questions.
。
We are going! / Let’s go!
。
Let’s go swimming together!
？
Are you going home already?
Vocabulary from your list
- — to go
- — together
- — to swim
- — yet; now
- — to return
じゃん and っけUse じゃん for a casual assertion or shared observation; use っけ to check something you are trying to remember.
Plain clause + . Recollection often uses ／; polite conversation can use .
。
That is good! / Sounds good!
、？
When was your birthday again?
。
When was your birthday again?
Vocabulary from your list
- — like; well
- — birthday
- — when
Names and titles and くん or ちゃんChoose how to address someone based on the relationship, not just a dictionary translation of “you”.
Name + is a useful neutral starting point. is familiar; is affectionate. Titles such as may stand alone.
、、。
Teacher, do you have time now?
［］／［］／［］
Neutral / familiar / affectionate ways to address a named person.
。
Are you busy today?
Vocabulary from your list
- — Mr.; Miss
- — now
- — hour; time
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (inanimate objects)
- — today
- — busy; occupied
- — name
お and ご for polite wordingRecognise respectful, humble and conventional polite word choices.
Selected nouns take or : , . Some words conventionally keep a prefix, such as . Learn the combinations as vocabulary.
。
What is your name?
。
Is your family well?
。
I drink tea.
Vocabulary from your list
- — name
- — what
- — family
- — health; healthy
- — tea
- — to drink
ございます in greetingsUse established greetings as complete expressions. Their social purpose matters as much as the literal words.
→. →. For a completed favour, is often appropriate.
。／。
Thanks. / Thank you.
。／。
Morning. / Good morning.
、。
Thank you for helping me.
Vocabulary from your list
- — thank you
- — good morning
- — to help (with a task)
- — thank you
- — good morning
Humble wording for your own sidePresent your own or your group’s action deferentially toward someone else. 丁寧語 politeness and 謙譲語 humble wording are related but different.
→（） for a formal introduction. →. is a formal reading of . These do not require inventing a new sentence order. + stem + ／ and + suitable noun + ／ also occur in established humble expressions: .
［］。
I am [name].
［］。。
My name is [name]. Pleased to meet you.
。
I will show you the way / guide you.
Vocabulary from your list
- — name
- — to say; to be called (humble form)
- — pleased to meet you; please help or take care of this
- — to do (humble form)
- — guidance; information
- — I; I (used with humble language)
- — to say
- — to do; to play (a sport)
Respectful wording for the other personUse special forms for the actions of someone you are showing respect to.
／／→; ／→; →. Polite forms include and .
。→ 。
Is the teacher here? → Respectful wording.
。→ 。
What will you eat? → Respectful wording.
。
Please look at this photo.
Vocabulary from your list
- — Mr.; Miss
- — be; to be, to exist, there is (animate objects)
- — to be in a place (respectful form)
- — what
- — to eat
- — to drink
- — to eat / to drink (respectful form)
- — to see; to watch
- — to see; to watch; to look (respectful form)
- — photo; a photo / photography
お plus a verb stem and になるRecognise a productive respectful pattern as well as fixed respectful phrases.
+ stem + . Examples from your vocabulary: , . Some verbs use a different special form.
。
The teacher will rest.
。
The teacher will rest (respectful).
。
What time will you come? (Respectful.)
Vocabulary from your list
- — Mr.; Miss
- — to rest / to be absent
- — to sleep (respectful form)
- — to come (respectful form)
- — what time
- — to see; to watch; to look (respectful form)
- — to be in a place (respectful form)
Recognising common spoken contractionsExpand the sound mentally before deciding which construction you heard.
→; →; →; →; →; →.
？ → 。
What are you doing?
、。→ 。
I will read the book in advance.
。→ 。
I have to go now.
Vocabulary from your list
- — what
- — to do; to play (a sport)
- — book; A counter used for something long and thin, or stick-like.
- — to read
- — yet; now
- — to go
- — to eat
ニャ as a character voiceRecognise this as cat-like speech in fiction, not a normal grammar target for everyday conversation.
imitates a cat sound and may replace or follow an ordinary ending. There is no standard polite conjugation.
。
It is tasty, meow. (Cat-like character voice.)
。
It is tasty.
。
It is tasty.
Vocabulary from your list
- — good; delicious